Dunnage bag
Dunnage Bags, also known as airbags, were introduced some 40 years ago as a convenient, fast and cost effective alternative to secure and stabilize cargo in ISO sea-containers, closed railcars, trucks and (ocean going-) vessels. The use of dunnage bags can have a positive impact on road safety. According to the European Commission Transportation Department "it has been estimated that up to 25% of accidents involving trucks can be attributable to inadequate cargo securing".[1] Besides the possibility of causing severe accidents, improperly secured cargo can also lead to loss of cargo, loss of lives, loss of vehicles, ships, and airplanes and can be a hazard for the environment.
Well car
A well car, also known as a double-stack car or stack car, is a type of railroad car specially designed to carry intermodal containers(shipping containers) used in intermodal freight transport. The "well" is a depressed section which sits close to the rails between thewheel trucks of the car, allowing a container to be carried lower than on a traditional flatcar. This makes it possible to carry a stack of two containers per unit on railway lines (double-stack rail transport) wherever the loading gauge assures sufficient clearance. The top container is held in place either by a bulkhead built into the car, or through the use of inter-box connectors.
Advantages to using well cars include increased stability due to the lower center of gravity of the load, lower tare weight, and in the case of articulated units, reduced slack action.
Double-stack cars are most common in North America where intermodal traffic is heavy and electrification is less widespread; thus overhead clearances are typically more manageable.
Dry port
A dry port (sometimes inland port) is an inland intermodal terminal directly connected by road or rail to a seaport and operating as a centre for the transshipment of sea cargo to inland destinations.[1]
In addition to their role in cargo transshipment, dry ports may also include facilities for storage and consolidation of goods, maintenance for road or rail cargo carriers and customs clearance services. The location of these facilities at a dry port relieves competition for storage and customs space at the seaport itself.
[edit]How they make import and export easier, and increase trade
Better customs checking/clearance/easier collection of taxes/revenue
Better Hinterland Connectivity
Better transport links/easier and cheaper transport to the associated sea port
Container (stuffing and stripping) facilities
Better management
Storage in sheds and open areas
Refrigeration available (in case of reefer container terminals)
Quicker processing/less time lost/avoid delays at associated sea port
Less congestion at associated sea port/eases pressure at associated sea port
Haulage
Haulage may refer to:
- The business of being a haulier (UK English) or hauler (US English), also called haulage contractor, common carrier, contract carrier, or private carrier, in other words of transporting goods by road or rail for other companies or one's own company.
- The horizontal transport of ore, coal, supplies, and waste, also called cartage or drayage. The vertical transport of the same with cranes is called hoisting.
- The charges made for hauling freight on carts, drays, lorries, or trucks.
Haulage cost is the cost of loading raw ore at a mine site and transporting it to a processing plant.
Haulage rights is the arrangement where one railway, supplying cars, may negotiate rates with customers located on another railway's line, the road granting haulage rights. This differs from trackage rights in that the host railway operates the trains for the other railway, where with trackage rights, the secondary railway operates trains over the host's track.
Cargo
Cargo (or freight) is goods or produce transported, generally for commercial gain, by ship, aircraft, train, van or truck. In modern times, containers are used in most intermodal long-haul cargo transport.
Transportation types
[edit]Marine
- Automobiles are handled at many ports and are usually carried on specialized roll-on/roll-off ships.
- Break bulk cargo is typically material stacked on wooden pallets and lifted into and out of the hold of a vessel by cranes on the dock or aboard the ship itself. The volume of break bulk cargo has declined dramatically worldwide as containerization has grown. A safe and secure way to secure break bulk and freight in containers is by using Dunnage Bags.
- Bulk cargo, such as salt, oil, tallow, and Scrap metal, is usually defined as commodities that are neither on pallets nor in containers. Bulk cargoes are not handled as individual pieces, the way heavy-lift and project cargoes are. Alumina, grain, gypsum, logs and wood chips, for instance, are bulk cargoes.
- Containers are the largest and fastest growing cargo category at most ports worldwide. Containerized cargo includes everything from auto parts,machinery and manufacturing components to shoes and toys to frozen meat and seafood.
- Project cargo and the heavy lift cargo include items like manufacturing equipment, air conditioners, factory components, generators, wind turbines, military equipment, and almost any other oversized or overweight cargo which is too big or too heavy to fit into a container.
[edit]Air
Main article: Air Cargo
Air cargo, commonly known as air freight, is collected by firms from shippers and delivered to customers. Aircraft were first used for carrying mail as cargo in 1911. Eventually manufacturers started designing aircraft for other types of freight as well.
There are many commercial aircraft suitable for carrying cargo such as the Boeing 747 and the bigger An-124, which was purposely built for easy conversion into a cargo aircraft. Such large aircraft employ quick-loading containers known as Unit Load Devices (ULDs), much like containerized cargo ships. The ULDs are located in front section of the aircraft.
Most nations own and utilize large numbers of cargo aircraft such as the C-17 Globemaster III for airlift logistic needs.
[edit]Train
Main article: Freight train
Trains are capable of transporting large numbers of containers that come from shipping ports. Trains are also used for the transportation of steel, wood and coal. They are used because they can carry a large amount and generally have a direct route to the destination. Under the right circumstances, freight transport by rail is more economic and energy efficient than by road, especially when carried in bulk or over long distances.
The main disadvantage of rail freight is its lack of flexibility. For this reason, rail has lost much of the freight business to road transport. Rail freight is often subject totransshipment costs, since it must be transferred from one mode of transportation to another. Practices such as containerization aim at minimizing these costs.
Many governments are currently trying to encourage shippers to use trains more often because of the environmental benefits.
[edit]Road
Many firms, like Parcelforce, FedEx, and u-haul transport all types of cargo by road. Delivering everything from letters to houses to cargo containers, these firms offer fast, sometimes same-day, delivery.
A good example of road cargo is food, as supermarkets require deliveries every day to keep their shelves stocked with goods. Retailers of all kinds rely upon delivery trucks, be they full size semi trucks or smaller delivery vans.
[edit]Shipment categories
Freight is usually organized into various shipment categories before it is transported. An item's category is determined by:
- the type of item being carried. For example, a kettle could fit into the category 'household goods'.
- how large the shipment is, in terms of both item size and quantity.
- how long the item for delivery will be in transit.
Shipments are typically categorized as household goods, express, parcel, and freight shipments:
- Household goods (HHG) include furniture, art and similar items.
- Very small business or personal items like envelopes are considered overnight express or express letter shipments. These shipments are rarely over a few kilogams or pounds and almost always travel in the carrier’s own packaging. Express shipments almost always travel some distance by air. An envelope may go coast to coast in the United States overnight or it may take several days, depending on the service options and prices chosen by the shipper.
- Larger items like small boxes are considered parcels or ground shipments. These shipments are rarely over 50 kg (110 lb), with no single piece of the shipment weighing more than about 70 kg (154 lb). Parcel shipments are always boxed, sometimes in the shipper’s packaging and sometimes in carrier-provided packaging. Service levels are again variable but most ground shipments will move about 800 to 1,100 kilometres (497 to 684 mi) per day. Depending on the origin of the package, it can travel from coast to coast in the United States in about four days. Parcel shipments rarely travel by air and typically move via road and rail. Parcels represent the majority of business-to-consumer (B2C) shipments.
- Beyond HHG, express, and parcel shipments, movements are termed freight shipments.
[edit]Less-than-truckload freight
Main article: Less than truckload shipping
Less than truckload (LTL) cargo is the first category of freight shipment, which represents the majority of freight shipments and the majority of business-to-business (B2B) shipments. LTL shipments are also often referred to as motor freight and the carriers involved are referred to as motor carriers.
LTL shipments range from 50 to 7,000 kg (110 to 15,000 lb), being less than 2.5 to 8.5 m (8 ft 2.4 in to 27 ft 10.6 in) the majority of times. The average single piece of LTL freight is 600 kg (1,323 lb) and the size of a standard pallet. Long freight and/or large freight are subject to extreme length and cubic capacity surcharges.
Trailers used in LTL can range from 28 to 53 ft (8.53 to 16.15 m). The standard for city deliveries is usually 48 ft (14.63 m). In tight and residential environments the 28 ft (8.53 m) trailer is used the most.
The shipments are usually palletized, shrink-wrapped and packaged for a mixed-freight environment. Unlike express or parcel, LTL shippers must provide their own packaging, as carriers do not provide any packaging supplies or assistance. However, circumstances may require crating or other substantial packaging.
[edit]Air freight
Air freight shipments are very similar to LTL shipments in terms of size and packaging requirements. However, air freight or air cargo shipments typically need to move at much faster speeds than 800 km or 497 mi per day. Air shipments may be booked directly with the carriers, through brokers or with online marketplace services. While shipments move faster than standard LTL, air shipments don’t always actually move by air.
[edit]Truckload freight
In the United States, shipments larger than about 7,000 kg (15,432 lb) are typically classified as truckload (TL) freight. This is because it is more efficient and economical for a large shipment to have exclusive use of one larger trailer rather than share space on a smaller LTL trailer.
The total weight of a loaded truck (tractor and trailer, 5-axle rig) cannot exceed 36,000 kg (79,366 lb) in the United States{fact}. In ordinary circumstances, long-haul equipment will weigh about 15,000 kg (33,069 lb), leaving about 20,000 kg (44,092 lb) of freight capacity. Similarly a load is limited to the space available in the trailer, normally 48 ft (14.63 m) or 53 ft (16.15 m) long, 2.6 m (102.4 in) wide, 2.7 m (8 ft 10.3 in) high and 13 ft 6 in/4.11 m high over all.
While express, parcel and LTL shipments are always intermingled with other shipments on a single piece of equipment and are typically reloaded across multiple pieces of equipment during their transport, TL shipments usually travel as the only shipment on a trailer. In fact, TL shipments usually deliver on exactly the same trailer as they are picked up on.
[edit]Shipping costs
Often, an LTL shipper may realize savings by utilizing a freight broker, online marketplace or other intermediary, instead of contracting directly with a trucking company. Brokers can shop the marketplace and obtain lower rates than most smaller shippers can obtain directly. In the LTL marketplace, intermediaries typically receive 50% to 80% discounts from published rates, where a small shipper may only be offered a 5% to 30% discount by the carrier. Intermediaries are licensed by the DOT and have requirements to provide proof of insurance.
Truckload (TL) carriers usually charge a rate per kilometre or mile. The rate varies depending on the distance, geographic location of the delivery, items being shipped, equipment type required, and service times required. TL shipments usually receive a variety of surcharges very similar to those described for LTL shipments above. In the TL market, there are thousands more small carriers than in the LTL market. Therefore, the use of transportation intermediaries or brokers is extremely common.
Another cost-saving method is facilitating pickups or deliveries at the carrier’s terminals. By doing this, shippers avoid any accessorial fees that might normally be charged for liftgate, residential pickup/delivery, inside pickup/delivery, or notifications/appointments. Carriers or intermediaries can provide shippers with the address and phone number for the closest shipping terminal to the origin and/or destination.
Shipping experts optimize their service and costs by sampling rates from several carriers, brokers and online marketplaces. When obtaining rates from different providers, shippers may find quite a wide range in the pricing offered. If a shipper uses a broker, freight forwarder or other transportation intermediary, it is common for the shipper to receive a copy of the carrier's Federal Operating Authority. Freight brokers and intermediaries are also required by Federal Law to be licensed by the Federal Highway Administration. Experienced shippers avoid unlicensed brokers and forwarders because if brokers are working outside the law by not having a Federal Operating License, the shipper has no protection in the event of a problem. Also, shippers normally ask for a copy of the broker's insurance certificate and any specific insurance that applies to the shipment.
[edit]Security concerns
Governments are very concerned with the shipment of cargo, as it may bring security risks to a country. Therefore, many governments have enacted rules and regulations, administered by a customsagency, to the handling of cargo to minimize risks of terrorism and other crime. Of particular concern is cargo entering through a country's borders.
The United States has been one of the leaders in securing cargo. They see cargo as a concern to national security. After the terrorist attacks of September 11th, the security of this magnitude of cargo has become highlighted on the over 6 million cargo containers enter the United States ports each year.[1] The latest US Government response to this threat is the CSI: Container Security Initiative. CSI is a program intended to help increase security for containerized cargo shipped to the United States from around the world.[2]
[edit]
Logistics
Logistics is the management of the flow of the goods, and services between the point of origin and the point of consumption in order to meet the requirements of customers. Logistics involves the integration of information, transportation, inventory, warehousing, material handling, and packaging, and occasionally security. Logistics is a channel of the supply chain which adds the value of time and place utility. Today the complexity of production logistics can be modeled, analyzed, visualized and optimized by plant simulation software.
Load securing
Load securing, also known as cargo securing, is the securing of cargo for transportation. According to the European Commission Transportation Department “it has been estimated that up to 25% of accidents involving trucks can be attributable to inadequate cargo securing”.[1] Cargo that is improperly secured can cause severe accidents and lead to the loss of cargo, the loss of lives, the loss of vehicles, or cause environmental hazards.
Shipping
Shipping has multiple meanings. It can be a physical process of transporting goods and cargo, by land, air, and sea. It also can describe the movement of objects by ship.Land or "ground" shipping can be by train or by truck. In air and sea shipments, ground transportation is often still required to take the product from its origin to the airport or seaport and then to its destination. Ground transportation is typically more affordable than air shipments, but more expensive than shipping by sea.[citation needed]Shipment of freight by trucks, directly from the shipper to the destination, is known as a door to door shipment. Vans and trucks make deliveries to sea ports and air ports where freight is moved in bulk.Much shipping is done aboard actual ships. An individual nation's fleet and the people that crew it are referred to its merchant navy or merchant marine. Merchant shipping is essential to the world economy, carrying 90% of international trade with 50,000 merchant ships worldwide.[1] The term shipping in this context originated from the shipping trade of wind power ships, and has come to refer to the delivery of cargo and parcels of any size above the common mailof letters and postcards.[edit]
Terms of shipment
Main article: IncotermCommon trading terms used in shipping goods internationally include:- Freight on board, or free on board (FOB) - the exporter delivers the goods at the specified location (and on board the vessel). Costs paid by the exporter include load and lash, including securing cargo not to move in the ships hold, protecting the cargo from contact with the double bottom to prevent slipping, and protection against damage from condensation. For example, "FOB Kunming Airport" means that the exporter delivers the goods to the airport, and pays for the cargo to be loaded and secured on the plane. The exporter is bound to deliver the goods at his cost and expense. In this case, the freight and other expenses for outbound traffic are borne by the importer.[citation needed]
- Cost and freight (C&F, CFR, CNF): Insurance is payable by the importer, and the exporter pays the ocean shipping/air freight costs to the specified location. For example, C&F Los Angeles (the exporter pays the ocean shipping/air freight costs to Los Angeles). Many of the shipping carriers (such asUPS, DHL, FedEx) offer guarantees on their delivery times. These are known as GSR guarantees or "guaranteed service refunds"; if the parcels are not delivered on time, the customer is entitled to a refund.[2]
- Cost, insurance, and freight (CIF): Insurance and freight are all paid by the exporter to the specified location. For example, at CIF Los Angeles, the exporter pays the ocean shipping/air freight costs to Los Angeles including the insurance.[citation needed]
- The term "best way" generally implies that the shipper will choose the carrier who offers the lowest rate (to the shipper) for the shipment.[3] In some cases, however, other factors, such as better insurance or faster transit time will cause the shipper to choose an option other than the lowest bidder.[4]
Swap body
A swap body (or swop body) is a standard freight container for road and rail transport.Basic standardization is set with Euronorms EN 283, EN 284 and EN 452 for construction and design, as well as EN 13044 for marking and identification. The panel responsible for developing standards is CEN/TC 119. The outcome of this panel has not yet provided any contribution to automation, as handling the swap bodies is a traditional haulage business with truck drivers involved.The design of swap bodies is optimized to minimize empty weight, saving on initial purchase cost (less materials required to manufacture) and on trucking fuel cost (less dead weight to be transported). As a consequence, swap bodies are not stackable or liftable, unlike the more widespread shipping containers(ISO containers). This makes them unsuitable for ship-based overseas transportation.[1] Because of security concerns, the number of swap bodies with a hard surface instead of curtains and tarpaulins is increasing.Swap bodies are typically more expensive than equivalent payload ISO containers. This is because the ISO containers used in Europe are typically manufactured in China, whereas swap bodies are made in Europe (central Europe and the UK). The lighter weight of the body offsets this cost in fuel savings during transport and increased cargo capacity.Swap bodies often have the same external width of corner fittings as shipping containers, so that they can be placed on the same kinds of trucks, trailers andrailroad cars designed for shipping containers. However, to optimize the carriage of pallets, wide bodies are often scaled to the maximum width allowed for standard road trucks and railroad cars and to a different length accommodating a quantity of Euro-pallets (0.8 × 1.2 m/31.5 × 47.2 in) without leaving empty space.Many swap bodies are fitted with four up-folding legs under their frame, to make it possible to change or “swap” their body from one carriage to another, or to leave the swap body at a destination, without using a crane or hoist.Special swap bodies may have more doors or sliding panels than ordinary hard boxes for trucks, railcars or sea containers, making unloading and loading faster and easier.Many swap bodies are fitted with key hole tracking to house a range of extras such as shoring bars and cargo nets to extend its uses in various applications. Recently a second flooring using folding shelfs has been used to aid postal companies.Special steel frames or racks are available in certain container ships and container marshalling yards to hoist swap bodies from topside.All swap bodies are subject to extensive non-destructive (in most cases) testing, some in-house others not, regulated by certifying authorities.[edit]
Semi-trailer
A semi-trailer is a trailer without a front axle. A large proportion of its weight is supported by a road tractor, by a detachable front axle assembly known as adolly, or by the tail of another trailer. A semi-trailer is normally equipped with landing gear (legs which can be lowered) to support it when it is uncoupled.A road tractor coupled to a semi-trailer is often called a semi-trailer truck or semi, or in the UK an articulated lorry.In Australian English, the tractor unit is usually referred to as a prime-mover; and the combination of a prime-mover and trailer is known as a semi-trailer orsemi. Semi-trailers with two trailer units are B-Doubles or road trains. A B-double consists of a prime mover towing two semi-trailers, where the first semi-trailer is connected to the prime mover by a fifth wheel coupling and the second semi-trailer is connected to the first semi-trailer by a fifth wheel coupling. Aroad train means a combination, other than a B-Double, consisting of a motor vehicle towing at least two trailers (counting as a single trailer a converter dolly supporting a semi-trailer).[citation needed]
Logistics
Logistics is the management of the flow of the goods, and services between the point of origin and the point of consumption in order to meet the requirements of customers. Logistics involves the integration of information, transportation, inventory, warehousing, material handling, and packaging, and occasionally security. Logistics is a channel of the supply chain which adds the value of time and place utility. Today the complexity of production logistics can be modeled, analyzed, visualized and optimized by plant simulation software.
Load securing
Load securing, also known as cargo securing, is the securing of cargo for transportation. According to the European Commission Transportation Department “it has been estimated that up to 25% of accidents involving trucks can be attributable to inadequate cargo securing”.[1] Cargo that is improperly secured can cause severe accidents and lead to the loss of cargo, the loss of lives, the loss of vehicles, or cause environmental hazards.
Shipping
Shipping has multiple meanings. It can be a physical process of transporting goods and cargo, by land, air, and sea. It also can describe the movement of objects by ship.
Land or "ground" shipping can be by train or by truck. In air and sea shipments, ground transportation is often still required to take the product from its origin to the airport or seaport and then to its destination. Ground transportation is typically more affordable than air shipments, but more expensive than shipping by sea.[citation needed]
Shipment of freight by trucks, directly from the shipper to the destination, is known as a door to door shipment. Vans and trucks make deliveries to sea ports and air ports where freight is moved in bulk.
Much shipping is done aboard actual ships. An individual nation's fleet and the people that crew it are referred to its merchant navy or merchant marine. Merchant shipping is essential to the world economy, carrying 90% of international trade with 50,000 merchant ships worldwide.[1] The term shipping in this context originated from the shipping trade of wind power ships, and has come to refer to the delivery of cargo and parcels of any size above the common mailof letters and postcards.
[edit]
Terms of shipment
Main article: IncotermCommon trading terms used in shipping goods internationally include:- Freight on board, or free on board (FOB) - the exporter delivers the goods at the specified location (and on board the vessel). Costs paid by the exporter include load and lash, including securing cargo not to move in the ships hold, protecting the cargo from contact with the double bottom to prevent slipping, and protection against damage from condensation. For example, "FOB Kunming Airport" means that the exporter delivers the goods to the airport, and pays for the cargo to be loaded and secured on the plane. The exporter is bound to deliver the goods at his cost and expense. In this case, the freight and other expenses for outbound traffic are borne by the importer.[citation needed]
- Cost and freight (C&F, CFR, CNF): Insurance is payable by the importer, and the exporter pays the ocean shipping/air freight costs to the specified location. For example, C&F Los Angeles (the exporter pays the ocean shipping/air freight costs to Los Angeles). Many of the shipping carriers (such asUPS, DHL, FedEx) offer guarantees on their delivery times. These are known as GSR guarantees or "guaranteed service refunds"; if the parcels are not delivered on time, the customer is entitled to a refund.[2]
- Cost, insurance, and freight (CIF): Insurance and freight are all paid by the exporter to the specified location. For example, at CIF Los Angeles, the exporter pays the ocean shipping/air freight costs to Los Angeles including the insurance.[citation needed]
- The term "best way" generally implies that the shipper will choose the carrier who offers the lowest rate (to the shipper) for the shipment.[3] In some cases, however, other factors, such as better insurance or faster transit time will cause the shipper to choose an option other than the lowest bidder.[4]
Swap body
A swap body (or swop body) is a standard freight container for road and rail transport.Basic standardization is set with Euronorms EN 283, EN 284 and EN 452 for construction and design, as well as EN 13044 for marking and identification. The panel responsible for developing standards is CEN/TC 119. The outcome of this panel has not yet provided any contribution to automation, as handling the swap bodies is a traditional haulage business with truck drivers involved.The design of swap bodies is optimized to minimize empty weight, saving on initial purchase cost (less materials required to manufacture) and on trucking fuel cost (less dead weight to be transported). As a consequence, swap bodies are not stackable or liftable, unlike the more widespread shipping containers(ISO containers). This makes them unsuitable for ship-based overseas transportation.[1] Because of security concerns, the number of swap bodies with a hard surface instead of curtains and tarpaulins is increasing.Swap bodies are typically more expensive than equivalent payload ISO containers. This is because the ISO containers used in Europe are typically manufactured in China, whereas swap bodies are made in Europe (central Europe and the UK). The lighter weight of the body offsets this cost in fuel savings during transport and increased cargo capacity.Swap bodies often have the same external width of corner fittings as shipping containers, so that they can be placed on the same kinds of trucks, trailers andrailroad cars designed for shipping containers. However, to optimize the carriage of pallets, wide bodies are often scaled to the maximum width allowed for standard road trucks and railroad cars and to a different length accommodating a quantity of Euro-pallets (0.8 × 1.2 m/31.5 × 47.2 in) without leaving empty space.Many swap bodies are fitted with four up-folding legs under their frame, to make it possible to change or “swap” their body from one carriage to another, or to leave the swap body at a destination, without using a crane or hoist.Special swap bodies may have more doors or sliding panels than ordinary hard boxes for trucks, railcars or sea containers, making unloading and loading faster and easier.Many swap bodies are fitted with key hole tracking to house a range of extras such as shoring bars and cargo nets to extend its uses in various applications. Recently a second flooring using folding shelfs has been used to aid postal companies.Special steel frames or racks are available in certain container ships and container marshalling yards to hoist swap bodies from topside.All swap bodies are subject to extensive non-destructive (in most cases) testing, some in-house others not, regulated by certifying authorities.[edit]
Semi-trailer
A semi-trailer is a trailer without a front axle. A large proportion of its weight is supported by a road tractor, by a detachable front axle assembly known as adolly, or by the tail of another trailer. A semi-trailer is normally equipped with landing gear (legs which can be lowered) to support it when it is uncoupled.A road tractor coupled to a semi-trailer is often called a semi-trailer truck or semi, or in the UK an articulated lorry.In Australian English, the tractor unit is usually referred to as a prime-mover; and the combination of a prime-mover and trailer is known as a semi-trailer orsemi. Semi-trailers with two trailer units are B-Doubles or road trains. A B-double consists of a prime mover towing two semi-trailers, where the first semi-trailer is connected to the prime mover by a fifth wheel coupling and the second semi-trailer is connected to the first semi-trailer by a fifth wheel coupling. Aroad train means a combination, other than a B-Double, consisting of a motor vehicle towing at least two trailers (counting as a single trailer a converter dolly supporting a semi-trailer).[citation needed]
Terms of shipment
Main article: Incoterm
Common trading terms used in shipping goods internationally include:
- Freight on board, or free on board (FOB) - the exporter delivers the goods at the specified location (and on board the vessel). Costs paid by the exporter include load and lash, including securing cargo not to move in the ships hold, protecting the cargo from contact with the double bottom to prevent slipping, and protection against damage from condensation. For example, "FOB Kunming Airport" means that the exporter delivers the goods to the airport, and pays for the cargo to be loaded and secured on the plane. The exporter is bound to deliver the goods at his cost and expense. In this case, the freight and other expenses for outbound traffic are borne by the importer.[citation needed]
- Cost and freight (C&F, CFR, CNF): Insurance is payable by the importer, and the exporter pays the ocean shipping/air freight costs to the specified location. For example, C&F Los Angeles (the exporter pays the ocean shipping/air freight costs to Los Angeles). Many of the shipping carriers (such asUPS, DHL, FedEx) offer guarantees on their delivery times. These are known as GSR guarantees or "guaranteed service refunds"; if the parcels are not delivered on time, the customer is entitled to a refund.[2]
- Cost, insurance, and freight (CIF): Insurance and freight are all paid by the exporter to the specified location. For example, at CIF Los Angeles, the exporter pays the ocean shipping/air freight costs to Los Angeles including the insurance.[citation needed]
- The term "best way" generally implies that the shipper will choose the carrier who offers the lowest rate (to the shipper) for the shipment.[3] In some cases, however, other factors, such as better insurance or faster transit time will cause the shipper to choose an option other than the lowest bidder.[4]
Swap body
A swap body (or swop body) is a standard freight container for road and rail transport.
Basic standardization is set with Euronorms EN 283, EN 284 and EN 452 for construction and design, as well as EN 13044 for marking and identification. The panel responsible for developing standards is CEN/TC 119. The outcome of this panel has not yet provided any contribution to automation, as handling the swap bodies is a traditional haulage business with truck drivers involved.
The design of swap bodies is optimized to minimize empty weight, saving on initial purchase cost (less materials required to manufacture) and on trucking fuel cost (less dead weight to be transported). As a consequence, swap bodies are not stackable or liftable, unlike the more widespread shipping containers(ISO containers). This makes them unsuitable for ship-based overseas transportation.[1] Because of security concerns, the number of swap bodies with a hard surface instead of curtains and tarpaulins is increasing.
Swap bodies are typically more expensive than equivalent payload ISO containers. This is because the ISO containers used in Europe are typically manufactured in China, whereas swap bodies are made in Europe (central Europe and the UK). The lighter weight of the body offsets this cost in fuel savings during transport and increased cargo capacity.
Swap bodies often have the same external width of corner fittings as shipping containers, so that they can be placed on the same kinds of trucks, trailers andrailroad cars designed for shipping containers. However, to optimize the carriage of pallets, wide bodies are often scaled to the maximum width allowed for standard road trucks and railroad cars and to a different length accommodating a quantity of Euro-pallets (0.8 × 1.2 m/31.5 × 47.2 in) without leaving empty space.
Many swap bodies are fitted with four up-folding legs under their frame, to make it possible to change or “swap” their body from one carriage to another, or to leave the swap body at a destination, without using a crane or hoist.
Special swap bodies may have more doors or sliding panels than ordinary hard boxes for trucks, railcars or sea containers, making unloading and loading faster and easier.
Many swap bodies are fitted with key hole tracking to house a range of extras such as shoring bars and cargo nets to extend its uses in various applications. Recently a second flooring using folding shelfs has been used to aid postal companies.
Special steel frames or racks are available in certain container ships and container marshalling yards to hoist swap bodies from topside.
All swap bodies are subject to extensive non-destructive (in most cases) testing, some in-house others not, regulated by certifying authorities.
[edit]
Semi-trailer
A semi-trailer is a trailer without a front axle. A large proportion of its weight is supported by a road tractor, by a detachable front axle assembly known as adolly, or by the tail of another trailer. A semi-trailer is normally equipped with landing gear (legs which can be lowered) to support it when it is uncoupled.A road tractor coupled to a semi-trailer is often called a semi-trailer truck or semi, or in the UK an articulated lorry.In Australian English, the tractor unit is usually referred to as a prime-mover; and the combination of a prime-mover and trailer is known as a semi-trailer orsemi. Semi-trailers with two trailer units are B-Doubles or road trains. A B-double consists of a prime mover towing two semi-trailers, where the first semi-trailer is connected to the prime mover by a fifth wheel coupling and the second semi-trailer is connected to the first semi-trailer by a fifth wheel coupling. Aroad train means a combination, other than a B-Double, consisting of a motor vehicle towing at least two trailers (counting as a single trailer a converter dolly supporting a semi-trailer).[citation needed]
Semi-trailer
A semi-trailer is a trailer without a front axle. A large proportion of its weight is supported by a road tractor, by a detachable front axle assembly known as adolly, or by the tail of another trailer. A semi-trailer is normally equipped with landing gear (legs which can be lowered) to support it when it is uncoupled.
A road tractor coupled to a semi-trailer is often called a semi-trailer truck or semi, or in the UK an articulated lorry.
In Australian English, the tractor unit is usually referred to as a prime-mover; and the combination of a prime-mover and trailer is known as a semi-trailer orsemi. Semi-trailers with two trailer units are B-Doubles or road trains. A B-double consists of a prime mover towing two semi-trailers, where the first semi-trailer is connected to the prime mover by a fifth wheel coupling and the second semi-trailer is connected to the first semi-trailer by a fifth wheel coupling. Aroad train means a combination, other than a B-Double, consisting of a motor vehicle towing at least two trailers (counting as a single trailer a converter dolly supporting a semi-trailer).[citation needed]
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